This publication is one of the series of IAEA publications on the environmental behaviour of naturally occurring radionuclides. It outlines uranium behaviour in different environments, as well as its transfer to, and metabolism in, humans. The publication also provides concepts, models and data required for the assessment of the impacts of uranium on non-human biota. Assessing the environmental and health effects of uranium poses specific challenges because of the combination of different types of hazard and potential exposures. Therefore, both the radiotoxicity and chemical toxicity of uranium are considered in this publication.

• Chapter 1INTRODUCTION
  • 1.1. Background
  • 1.2. Objective
  • 1.3. Scope
  • 1.4. Structure
• References to Chapter 1
• Chapter 2HISTORY AND USES OF URANIUM
  • 2.1. Early hard rock mining
  • 2.2. Discovery of the element
  • 2.3. Use of uranium as a colourant
  • 2.4. Discovery of radioactivity
  • 2.5. Exploitation of uranium bodies for radium
  • 2.6. Discovery of fission
  • 2.7. Use of uranium in nuclear applications
  • 2.8. Impact of uranium production
    • 2.8.1. Occupational impact of uranium mining
    • 2.8.2. Environmental impact of uranium production
    • 2.8.3. Environmental impact of used nuclear fuel
  • 2.9. Current situation
    • 2.9.1. Non-nuclear applications
    • 2.9.2. Uranium present in naturally occurring radioactive material
• References to Chapter 2
• Chapter 3PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF URANIUM
  • 3.1. Physical properties
    • 3.1.1. Isotopes of uranium
    • 3.1.2. Decay series of 238U and 235U
    • 3.1.3. Research applications of isotopic ratios in the uranium decay series
  • 3.2. Natural distribution and mineralogy
    • 3.2.1. Uranium distribution
    • 3.2.2. Mineralogy and geochemical behaviour
  • 3.3. Environmental chemistry
    • 3.3.1. Aqueous speciation and oxidation state
    • 3.3.2. Solubility and precipitation
    • 3.3.3. Adsorption and desorption
  • 3.4. Microbial biogeochemistry
    • 3.4.1. Aerobic microbial interactions with uranium
    • 3.4.2. Anaerobic microbial interactions with uranium
    • 3.4.3. Field studies of bioreduction and biomineralization
  • 3.5. Measurement of uranium
    • 3.5.1. Survey of techniques in common usage
    • 3.5.2. Major analytical techniques for uranium determination
    • 3.5.3. Issues in technique selection for environmental samples
• References to Chapter 3
• Chapter 4URANIUM DISTRIBUTION IN THE ENVIRONMENT
  • 4.1. Cycling of uranium in the environment
  • 4.2. Uranium in terrestrial environments
    • 4.2.1. Parent materials and soils
    • 4.2.2. Terrestrial plants
    • 4.2.3. Terrestrial animals
  • 4.3. Uranium in groundwater
    • 4.3.1. Ranges of uranium concentration in groundwater
    • 4.3.2. Variations in aquifer characteristics due to uranium anomalies
    • 4.3.3. Fractionation of uranium isotopes in groundwaters
  • 4.4. Uranium in freshwater environments
    • 4.4.1. Surface waters and rainfall
    • 4.4.2. Sediments
    • 4.4.3. Freshwater biota
  • 4.5. Uranium in the marine environment
    • 4.5.1. River water discharges
    • 4.5.2. Estuaries
    • 4.5.3. Coastal seas
    • 4.5.4. The open ocean
    • 4.5.5. Uptake in marine biota
  • 4.6. Uranium in the atmosphere
  • 4.7. Summary of uranium concentrations in environmental media
• References to Chapter 4
• Chapter 5PRINCIPLES OF RADIOLOGICAL AND TOXICOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT OF URANIUM
  • 5.1. Protection standards for the chemical and radiological toxicity of uranium
  • 5.2. Environmental media and organisms of relevance in assessments
  • 5.3. Transfer parameters
  • 5.4. Assessment models
  • 5.5. Data selection
  • 5.6. Dose implications and comparisons
  • 5.7. Comparison of enhanced concentrations with typical values
  • 5.8. Criteria adopted for protecting human health and the environment
• References to Chapter 5
• Chapter 6QUANTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSFER PROCESSES OF URANIUM
  • 6.1. General principles
  • 6.2. Terrestrial environment
    • 6.2.1. Transport of uranium in groundwaters
    • 6.2.2. Soil–uranium interactions
    • 6.2.3. Uranium soil to plant transfer
  • 6.3. Uranium transfer to animals
    • 6.3.1. Behaviour of uranium in terrestrial animals
    • 6.3.2. Transfer coefficients and concentration ratios
    • 6.3.3. Biokinetics
    • 6.3.4. Biomarkers
  • 6.4. Fresh water
    • 6.4.1. Water–sediment interactions
    • 6.4.2. Transfer to freshwater biota
  • 6.5. Marine environment
    • 6.5.1. Transport through estuaries and the coastal environment
    • 6.5.2. Water–sediment interactions
    • 6.5.3. Transfers to marine biota: Uranium concentration ratios
• References to Chapter 6
• Chapter 7ASSESSMENT OF THE RADIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL IMPACTS OF URANIUM
  • 7.1. Uranium in food and drinking water
  • 7.2. Distribution of uranium in human organs and tissues and losses by excretion
  • 7.3. Models and data for estimating internal exposures to humans
    • 7.3.1. Biokinetic modelling
    • 7.3.2. Gastrointestinal transport and uptake
    • 7.3.3. Retention in, and uptake from, the respiratory tract
    • 7.3.4. Systemic retention
    • 7.3.5. Data on the radiotoxicity of uranium
  • 7.4. Models and data for estimating chemical toxicity to humans
  • 7.5. Dose conversion factors for estimating external and internal doses to biota
  • 7.6. Models and data for estimating chemical toxicity to biota
• References to Chapter 7
• Chapter 8MANAGEMENT OF SITES CONTAMINATED IN THE EXPLOITATION OF URANIUM
  • 8.1. Types of industry
    • 8.1.1. Introduction
    • 8.1.2. Uranium mining and milling
    • 8.1.3. Potential hazards from uranium mining and mill tailings
  • 8.2. Overview of legacy issues and remediation strategies
    • 8.2.1. General considerations
    • 8.2.2. Planning remediation
    • 8.2.3. Regulatory framework and remediation objectives
  • 8.3. Types of waste containing uranium
  • 8.4. Remediation technologies
    • 8.4.1. Containment technologies
    • 8.4.2. Surface caps
    • 8.4.3. Cut-off walls
    • 8.4.4. Bottom barriers
    • 8.4.5. Stabilization/immobilization technologies
    • 8.4.6. Treatment of waters
    • 8.4.7. Protection of water resources during site decommissioning and remediation
• References to Chapter 8
• Chapter 9CASE STUDIES
  • 9.1. Uranium legacy sites in Central Asia and Ukraine
    • 9.1.1. Uranium legacy sites
    • 9.1.2. Mill sites
  • 9.2. Uranium extraction facilities
    • 9.2.1. Conclusions
  • 9.3. Uranium in other metal mining and processing industries
  • 9.4. Uranium in phosphate minerals
• References to Chapter 9
• ABBREVIATIONS
• CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW