Compared to modern standard, the Roman army of the imperial era was surprisingly small. However, when assessed in terms of their various tasks, they by far outstrip modern armies – acting not only as an armed power of the state in external and internal conflicts, but also carrying out functions which nowadays are performed by police, local government, customs and tax authorities, as well as constructing roads, ships, and buildings.

With this opulent volume, Thomas Fischer presents a comprehensive and unique exploration of the Roman military of the imperial era. With over 600 illustrations, the costumes, weapons and equipment of the Roman army are explored in detail using archaeological finds dating from the late Republic to Late Antiquity, and from all over the Roman Empire. The buildings and fortifications associated with the Roman army are also discussed. By comparing conflicts, border security, weaponry and artefacts, the development of the army through time is traced.

This work is intended for experts as well as to readers with a general interest in Roman history. It is also a treasure-trove for re-enactment groups, as it puts many common perceptions of the weaponry, equipment and dress of the Roman army to the test.

• Cover
• Title
• Copyright
• Contents
• Translator’s Preface
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
  • The state of research
  • The iconographic sources
  • On armament, equipment, and the buildings
  • Basic information on the history and structure of the Roman army
    • The Republic
      • The cohort legion
    • Legions in the Imperial period
      • Infantrymen
      • Legionary commanders and military tribunes
      • Legionary prefects
      • Centurions
      • Principales and immunes
    • Auxiliaries (auxilia)
      • Structure
      • Nomenclature
      • Citizenship
    • Numeri
    • Guards
    • Militias
    • The so-called ‘military reform’ of the 4th century AD
    • The Roman navy
  • Notes to introduction
• Part I Iconographic sources for the Roman military by Dietrich Boschung
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Republican representations
    • The frieze on the monument of L. Aemilius Paullus at Delphi
    • The Census Relief in the Louvre
    • The Sant’Omobono base (Bocchus Monument)
  • 3. The Early Empire: Augustus to Domitian
    • The frieze from the Porticus Octaviae
    • The silver cup from Boscoreale
    • Representations from the Julio-Claudian period
    • The Cancelleria reliefs
  • 4. Representations from the middle imperial period
    • Trajan’s Column
    • The Great Trajanic Frieze
    • The Column of Marcus Aurelius
    • A series of reliefs of Marcus Aurelius
    • The Arch of Severus
  • 5. Representations from the Tetrarchic period
    • The Arch of Galerius in Thessaloniki
  • 6. Representations from Late Antiquity
    • The Arch of Constantine
  • Notes to Part I
• Part II General remarks on the Roman army
  • 1. Introduction
    • Selection of the material dealt with here
  • 2. A history of research
    • From the Middle Ages to the beginning of critical historical research
    • From the 19th century to the First World War
    • From the end of the First to the end of the Second World War
    • After the Second World War
    • The ‘Robinson effect’
  • 3. Armament and equipment
    • Change
    • Adoption of enemy armament
    • Uniformity and regional differences
    • Supply of weapons
    • The technology of weapons production and procurement of raw materials
      • Iron
      • Copper alloy
      • Other materials
    • State arms factories in Late Antiquity
    • Ownership
    • Secondary use of weapons
      • Military
      • Secondary civilian use
    • The durability of weapons
  • 4. Find contexts of Roman weapons and equipment parts
    • Finds from camps, forts and other military sites
    • Finds from civilian settlements
    • Finds from water
    • Grave finds
    • Hoards
    • Battlefield and siege finds
    • Dedications
    • Finds from Germanic sacrificial bogs
  • 5. Legionary or auxiliary equipment?
    • Praetorians
    • Auxiliary cavalry
    • Auxiliary soldiers with specialized or local armament
      • Armoured cavalry (cataphractarii, clibanarii)
      • Oriental archers
      • Dacians with the scimitar (sica)
      • Numerus soldiers
      • Marines
    • Other paramilitary units
    • Arming of civilians
  • 6. Rank insignia
    • Emperor, tribunes, and legates
    • Centurions
    • Optiones
    • Pieces of equipment made of precious metals as a sign of military rank?
  • 7. On the reconstruction of Roman fighting methods
  • 8. Comments on the re-enactment scene
  • 9. Forgeries
  • Notes to Part II
• Part III Costumes, weapons, and equipment of the army from original archaeological finds
  • 1. Infantry
    • Clothing
      • Tunics
      • Trousers
      • Undergarments
      • Belts
      • Cloaks
      • Brooches
      • Scarves
      • Cummerbunds
      • Headgear
      • Shoes
      • Socks
    • Defensive weaponry
      • Helmets
      • Armour
      • Greaves
      • Armguards (manicae)
      • Shields
    • Offensive weapons
      • Swords
      • Parazonia
      • Hewing knives
      • Daggers
      • Shafted weapons
      • Bow and arrow
      • Slings
  • 2. Cavalry
    • Clothing
      • Tunic, cloaks, leggings
      • Belt
      • Spurs
    • Defensive weapons
      • Cavalry helmets: the various types and their variants
      • Armour
      • Shields
    • Offensive weapons
      • Spathae
      • Spears
      • Bow and arrow
    • Horse harness
    • Components of horse harness
    • Parade weapons
      • Face-mask helmets
      • Greaves
      • Parade armour?
    • Parade equipment for horses
      • Horse chamfrons
      • Phalerae
  • 3. Artillery
  • 4. Standards and instruments for signalling
    • Standards
      • Simple standards
      • Composite standards
    • Signal and musical instruments
      • Lituus
      • Bucina
      • Tuba
      • Cornu
  • 5. Awards and decorations
  • 6. Pioneer tools, tents, field pack
    • Digression on the Künzing hoard
    • Tools
      • Mattock (dolabra)
      • Pickaxe
      • Entrenching tool
      • Turf cutter
      • Axe
      • Billhook
      • Baskets (cophini)
      • Timber nails
      • Palisade stakes
    • Shackles and ‘crow’s feet’
    • Tents
    • Marching pack
  • Notes to Part III
• Part IV The buildings of the Roman army
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Roman camps and forts
    • Camp and fort defences
      • Timber and earth defences
      • Stone construction
    • Internal buildings of legionary camps and auxiliary forts
      • Streets
      • Principia
      • Praetorium
      • Tribunes’ houses
      • Barracks
      • Tabernae
      • Baths
      • Exercise halls
      • Grain storage (horrea)
      • Hospitals (valetudinaria)
      • Workshops (fabricae)
      • Storage and other rooms
      • Ovens
      • Water supply and latrines
    • Infrastructure and facilities
      • Exercise and training sites (campus)
      • Civilian settlements in the area
  • 3. The most important types of camps and forts
    • Marching camps without internal buildings
      • Republican marching camps
      • Imperial-period marching camps
      • Practice camps
    • Permanent camps with internal buildings
      • Semi-permanent Republican camps
    • Siege works of the Republican and Imperial periods
    • Camps, fortresses and forts of the early and middle Imperial period
      • Double-legionary bases in chronological order
      • Legionary camps in chronological order
      • Vexillation fortresses in chronological order
      • Vexillation forts
      • Supply bases
      • Auxiliary forts
      • Ala forts
      • Cohors equitata forts
      • Cohors peditata forts
      • Forts for mixed garrisons
      • Garrison within a city
      • Numerus forts
      • Smaller forts
      • Fortlets
      • Watchtowers
    • Camps and forts in and around Rome
      • Castra Praetoria
      • Accommodation for the cohortes urbanae
      • Accommodation for the Germani corporis custodes
      • Forts for the equites singulares Augusti
      • Castra Peregrina
      • Forts for fleet personnel
      • Accommodation for vigiles
      • Legionary base at Albano
  • 4. Late Roman fortifications
    • Forts
    • Burgi
  • 5. Military infrastructure
    • Roads
    • Canals
  • 6. Limites and ripae
    • The terms ‘limes’ and ‘ripa’
    • Function
    • Late Roman Frontier Defence
    • The frontier security systems of the Roman Empire
      • Hadrian’s Wall
      • Antonine Wall
      • Late Roman frontier defence of Britain
      • The Rhine frontier in Lower Germany (Ripa Rheni Germaniae inferioris)
      • The Upper German-Raetian Limes
      • The Late Roman Danube-Iller-Rhine limes
      • The Norican Danube limes (Ripa Danuvii Provinciae Norici)
      • Pannonian Danube limes (Ripa Danuvii provinciae Pannoniae)
      • Upper Moesian Danube frontier (Ripa Danuvii provinciae Moesiae superioris)
      • Dacian Limes (Limes Daciae)
      • Lower Moesian Danube frontier (Ripa Danuvii provinciae Moesiae inferioris)
      • The limes on the upper Euphrates and in the Middle East
      • Limes in Pontus and Cappadocia
      • Limes in Syria
      • Limes Arabicus
      • Limes in Egypt
      • The limes in Cyrenaica, Africa Proconsularis, and Numidia
      • The limes in the provinces of Mauretania Tingitana and Caesariensis
    • Notes to Part IV
• Part V The development periods of Roman military history
  • 1. Introduction
  • 2. Republic
    • Military conflicts
    • Armament and equipment
    • Armament and equipment of auxiliary units
    • Securely dated weapons and equipment finds (selection)
  • 3. The early Imperial period from Augustus to Nero
    • Military conflicts
    • Securing the frontiers of the empire
    • Armament and equipment
      • Legionary infantry
      • Auxiliary infantry
      • Auxiliary cavalry
    • Securely dated weapons and equipment finds (selection)
  • 4. The middle Imperial period from Vespasian to Trajan
    • Military conflicts
    • Securing the frontiers of the empire
    • Armament and equipment
      • Legionary infantry
      • Auxiliary infantry
      • Auxiliary cavalry
    • Securely dated finds of weapons and equipment (selection)
  • 5. The middle Imperial period from Hadrian to Septimius Severus
    • Military conflicts
    • Securing the frontiers of the empire
    • Armament and equipment
      • Legionary infantry
      • Auxiliary infantry
      • Auxiliary cavalry
    • Excursion on the ‘Celtic Renaissance’ in military fittings
    • Securely dated finds of weapons and equipment (selection)
  • 6. The middle Imperial period from Caracalla to the reforms of Diocletian
    • Military conflicts
    • Securing the frontiers of the empire
    • Armament and equipment
      • Legionary infantry
      • Auxiliary infantry
      • Auxiliary cavalry
    • Securely dated finds of weapons and equipment (selection)
  • 7. Late Antiquity
    • Military conflicts
    • Securing the frontiers of the empire
    • Armament and equipment
    • Securely dated finds of weapons and equipment
    • Byzantine weapons – an overview
  • Notes to Part V
• Part VI The Roman navy
  • 1. Arming and equipping the marines
    • Organization of the marines
    • Armament
  • 2. Bases of the Roman fleets in the Imperial period by Thomas Schmidts
    • Introduction
    • Characteristics of ancient military ports
    • Roman naval bases
      • Overview
      • Misenum/Miseno (Italy)
      • Ravenna (Italy)
      • Forum Iulii/Fréjus (France)
      • Seleukeia Pieria/Samandag (Turkey)
      • Aliso?/Haltern-Hofestatt (Germany)
      • Flevum/Velsen (Netherlands)
      • Cologne-Alteburg (Germany)
      • Gesoriacum/Boulogne-sur-Mer (France)
      • Dubris/Dover (Britain)
    • Conclusion and outlook
  • 3. Roman warships by Ronald Bockius
    • Warships, small naval units and anciliary vessels
    • Roman multi-level ships up to the end of the Republic
    • Warships of the Roman Empire
    • Military boats, ships, and floating craft on inland waters
      • Transports
      • Oared vessels
    • Oared boats of the Oberstimm-Vechten type
      • Vechten (Netherlands)
      • Oberstimm (Germany)
    • Oared boat of Mainz type A
    • Mainz type B vessel
    • Other boat and ship finds
      • Pisa, ship C (Italy)
      • Herculaneum (Italy)
      • London County Hall (Great Britain)
      • Yverdon-les-Bains (Switzerland)
    • Notes to Part VI
• End matter
  • Bibliography
  • Abbreviations
  • Illustration credits