Major accidents at a nuclear power plant or fuel cycle facility are rare but can produce large quantities of radioactive waste with widely varying characteristics that can be difficult to manage. Large volumes of radioactive waste can also be generated by accidents at military installations or by the mishandling high-activity-sealed radiation sources. In the case of a major accident, radioactive waste volumes may quickly overwhelm existing national management and disposal infrastructure. Appropriate disposal facilities might not be available to match the amounts or characteristics of the wastes. This publication is developed to support Member States efforts towards improved preparedness related to the management of radioactive waste in the event of a nuclear or radiological accident. It builds on experiences gained following historic accidents to develop lessons learned, which planners in governmental agencies and nuclear facilities are encouraged to consider in preplanning activities.

• 1. INTRODUCTION
  • 1.1. Background
  • 1.2. Objective
  • 1.3. Scope
  • 1.4. Structure
• 2. ACCIDENT WASTE ORIGINS AND CHARACTERISTICS
  • 2.1. Quantities of waste
  • 2.2. Waste characteristics
  • 2.3. Differences between accident and normal wastes
• 3. SYSTEMS ENGINEERING APPROACH TO WASTE MANAGEMENT PLANNING
  • 3.1. Requirements management system and hierarchy
  • 3.2. Implementation of a requirements management system
    • 3.2.1. Accident site end state requirements and interim state milestones
    • 3.2.2. Waste acceptance criteria for storage and disposal facilities
    • 3.2.3. Free release, clearance and recycling criteria
    • 3.2.4. Discharge requirements
    • 3.2.5. Licensing and regulatory requirements for all activities and facilities involved
    • 3.2.6. Cost control and budget decision making
    • 3.2.7. Waste minimization options
    • 3.2.8. Records and data management
    • 3.2.9. Quality management challenges
    • 3.2.10. Available organizational structure
    • 3.2.11. Available infrastructure
    • 3.2.12. Availability of experienced personnel and training needs
    • 3.2.13. Mode of deployment of technologies (fixed versus mobile/transportable)
    • 3.2.14. Research and development needs
    • 3.2.15. Feedback/lessons learned
    • 3.2.16. Interactions with other programmes
    • 3.2.17. Communications needs and public involvement
• 4. PRE- AND POST-ACCIDENT PLANNING
  • 4.1. Preplanning for disposal
    • 4.1.1. Evaluation of existing disposal capacity
    • 4.1.2. Evaluation of potential new disposal facility locations and technologies
    • 4.1.3. Averaging, dilution and blending approaches
    • 4.1.4. Stakeholder involvement in accident waste disposal
    • 4.1.5. Other technical issues in disposal preplanning
  • 4.2. Post-accident waste management planning
    • 4.2.1. Example 1: recovery operations planning at the Chornobyl Unit 4 site
    • 4.2.2. Example 2: the Fukushima Daiichi NPP roadmap
  • 4.3. Additional remarks on the post-accident plan
• 5. IMPLEMENTING THE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN
  • 5.1. Conversion of existing facilities
  • 5.2. Siting new facilities
  • 5.3. Design
  • 5.4. Licensing
  • 5.5. Facility construction and project execution
  • 5.6. Commissioning and testing
  • 5.7. Training
  • 5.8. Operation and maintenance
  • 5.9. Decommissioning of waste handling and storage facilities
  • 5.10. Quality assurance and quality control
• 6. WASTE CHARACTERIZATION STRATEGIES, METHODOLOGIES AND TECHNIQUES
  • 6.1. Characterization strategy and methodology
    • 6.1.1. Process knowledge
    • 6.1.2. Establishing a characterization programme
    • 6.1.3. Data quality objectives
  • 6.2. Varying demands for characterization data
    • 6.2.1. Bulk characterization
    • 6.2.2. Characterization for sorting and staging
    • 6.2.3. Characterization of bags and packages
    • 6.2.4. Release, clearance and recycling of materials
    • 6.2.5. Food supply characterization
    • 6.2.6. Underwater characterization
    • 6.2.7. Characterization for processing, storage and disposal
  • 6.3. Characterization methods and techniques
    • 6.3.1. Dose rate measurements
    • 6.3.2. Contamination survey with alpha, beta and gamma probes
    • 6.3.3. Measurement of airborne contamination
    • 6.3.4. Gamma spectrometry
    • 6.3.5. Gamma imaging
    • 6.3.6. Neutron counting
    • 6.3.7. Destructive analysis
  • 6.4. Characterization examples from past nuclear accidents
    • 6.4.1. Three Mile Island accident
    • 6.4.2. Chernobyl accident
    • 6.4.3. Fukushima Daiichi accident
• 7. WASTE COLLECTION, HANDLING AND RETRIEVAL
  • 7.1. Initial waste collection
  • 7.2. Handling of large and/or bulk materials
  • 7.3. Remote evaluation of materials in damaged structures
  • 7.4. Retrieval from storage
• 8. PROCESSING OF WASTES
  • 8.1. Pretreatment
    • 8.1.1. Sorting and segregation
    • 8.1.2. Decontamination
  • 8.2. Treatment
    • 8.2.1. Solids
    • 8.2.2. Liquids
    • 8.2.3. Gaseous wastes
  • 8.3. Conditioning
    • 8.3.1. Solids
    • 8.3.2. Liquids
  • 8.4. Containers and packaging
• 9. TRANSPORTATION AND TRANSFER
• 10. STORAGE
  • 10.1. Initial considerations
  • 10.2. Issues in planning storage
  • 10.3. Selecting appropriate storage solutions
  • 10.4. Improvised temporary storage structures
  • 10.5. Purpose built interim storage structures
    • 10.5.1. Purpose built storage at the Fukushima Daiichi NPP
    • 10.5.2. Purpose built storage at the Chornobyl NPP
    • 10.5.3. Purpose built storage at TMI NPP
• 11. DISPOSAL
  • 11.1. Waste volume impacts on national waste disposal activities
  • 11.2. Identifying the types of disposal facility that might be required using a graded approach
  • 11.3. Number, size and type of disposal facilities needed
  • 11.4. Siting new disposal facilities after an accident
    • 11.4.1. Siting disposal facilities in relation to the contaminated area
    • 11.4.2. Local community incentives as a means to expedite new facility development
    • 11.4.3. Application of siting criteria in an accident situation
  • 11.5. Disposal facility operations following an accident
    • 11.5.1. New disposal facility construction
    • 11.5.2. Transportation to an off-site disposal facility: routes, modes and equipment
    • 11.5.3. Shipment loading and unloading facilities
    • 11.5.4. Verification of WAC at the disposal facility
    • 11.5.5. Operational monitoring and surveillance at the disposal facility
  • 11.6. Experience with disposal following major accidents
• 12. CONCLUSION: the value of being prepared
• Appendix I THE WINDSCALE PILES ACCIDENT
• Appendix II THE THREE MILE ISLAND ACCIDENT
• Appendix III THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT
• Appendix IV THE FUKUSHIMA DAIICHI ACCIDENT
• Appendix V OTHER NUCLEAR ACCIDENTS
• Appendix VICLEANUP OF LEGACY NUCLEAR SITES
• REFERENCES
• ABBREVIATIONS
• CONTRIBUTORS TO DRAFTING AND REVIEW
• STRUCTURE OF THE IAEA NUCLEAR ENERGY SERIES